Cancer is a major health problem in the world. In the United States, it is the second leading cause of death with 21 states ranking the disease as the leading cause of death in their jurisdictions. Despite the increased efforts towards controlling the disease and advancement of medical technology, cancer prevalence rate among Americans continues to rise (Siegel, Miller, & Jemal, 2016). This paper will explore diagnosis and staging of cancer, medical complications associated with the disease, side effects of treatment, and methods used to lessen physical and psychological effects of cancer.
The Diagnosis of Cancer
Extraction of Historical Information
Diagnosis entails ascertaining the presence of cancerous cells in a patient. Exploration of personal and family history is critical as family history is a known risk factor for the onset of the growth of cancer. Getting historical information gives the physician some insight into the possibility of a patient having cancer (Hayat, 2011).
Physical Examination
Physicians perform a physical examination of patients in areas where they suspect that the physical appearance of body tissues is suggestive of cancer infection. The examination is done to check for physical symptoms such as tumors (National Cancer Institute, 2015).
Laboratory Tests
Laboratory tests are done when it is discovered that there are low levels of certain substances in the body. Usually, laboratory examinations of urine, blood and other body fluids that measure the level of these substances are tested to make a diagnosis (National Cancer Institute, 2015; Hayat, 2011).
Biopsy
A biopsy is a medical procedure in which a sample tissue is removed from the patient, and a microscopic examination is done. This is often done when initial tests have indicated the presence of abnormal tissue structures (Hayat, 2011).
Imaging
Imaging entails the use of specialized medical equipment to create images of a given part of the body. The image so obtained is then examined by the doctor to ascertain the presence of a tumor. The images captured through this method include tissues, organs, bones, and blood. Imaging techniques include x-rays, PET scan, MRI scan, CT scan, nuclear scan, and Ultrasound (National Cancer Institute, 2015). Other methods include endoscopy and investigation of genetic materials of a patient suspected of suffering from cancer.
Staging of Cancer
Staging is the process undertaken by doctors to determine the nature of cancer that a given patient suffers, the size, and spread of the cancerous cells. Having knowledge about the stage of cancer is critical as it enables doctors to recommend treatment options. This is due to fact that cancers with the same stage tend to have similar prognosis. For instance, treatment of early stage cancers may be done through surgery whereas doctors recommend chemotherapy for advanced stage cancers (Cancer Institute, 2015; Hayat, 2011).
Complications of Cancer
Gastrointestinal complications
Complications are medical problems which occur during the prognosis of a disease, or after the patient has undergone a medical procedure or treatment (Cancer Institute, 2015).Gastrointestinal complications are some of the common complications that manifest themselves in cancer patients. These complications arise out of the prognosis of the disease and treatment, and affect the digestive system in varied ways. Complications include constipation, bowel obstruction, fecal impaction, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. Abernethy, Wheeler, and Zafar (2010) report that complications such as nausea and vomiting occur in 21-68% of patients with advanced stage of cancer and 70 -80 percent of cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. Gastrointestinal complications lead to metabolic disturbances, malnutrition, and other physiological repercussions. Constipation can be emotionally and stressful and is associated with abdominal pain, headache, and fatigue (Abernethy, Wheeler, & Zafar, 2010).These experiences reduce the quality of lives of cancer patients.
Neurologic Complications of Cancer
Neurologic complications are those complications arising out of the damage of the nervous system of cancer patients. As such, the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves are affected. Many cancers tend to spread towards the Central Nervous System (CNS), and brain metastases are some of the complications common with people suffering from lung, breast and melanoma malignancies (Giglio & Gilbert, 2010). According to Giglio and Gilbert (2010), epidural spinal cord compression intracranial pressure and uncontrolled seizure activities are some of the common complications associated with cancer. These complications often require neuro-oncologic emergencies in order to save the lives of the affected patients. Cancer can also cause brain injury as a result of chemotherapy procedures, and this can, in turn, damage the quality life of patients.
Hepatic complications
Hepatic disease is common with patients with breast cancer. Breast cancer invariably spreads to lungs, bones and the liver. Hepatic disease results from the metastatic spread of the cancerous cells to the liver, and research has found that about 40-50 percent of women with metastatic breast cancer experience liver metastasis at some point in the course of the diseases advancement (Nazario, Lepe, & Trotter, 2011). Infiltration of the liver by metastatic cells can cause acute liver failure, and this has been particularly noted in patients who have had a history of known and treated breast cancer. Some cancer patients exhibit portal hypertension which is manifested as a bleeding of the esophagus (Nazario, Lepe, & Trotter, 2011).Infection of the liver can interfere with the multiple functions of the liver thereby eroding the quality of life of cancer patients.
Side Effects of Cancer Treatment
The effects of cancer have taken a huge toll on the human race (Giglio & Gilbert, 2010).Apart from death, the prognosis and treatment of the disease can have long-term effects on patients. Contemporary cancer treatment methods include chemotherapy, surgical resection, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, and radiotherapy (Wong, 2014). Each of these modalities has some negative effects on cancer patients. For instance, radio and chemotherapy treatments can cause direct harm to tissues of oral structures of patients. The damage to soft and hard tissues may lead to periodontal diseases and poorly restored dentition. Such effects hamper the quality of life of cancer patients in the sense that they undermine performance of daily survival functions such as eating and verbal communication (Wong, 2014).Chemotherapy can also cause hair loss in various parts of the body. The hair loss may be confined or widespread (Hayat, 2011).
Chemotherapeutic measures have the advantage of attacking cancer cells thereby preventing subdivision and spread. However, these drugs are not specific in their target cells hence end up damaging innocent cells.' These cells include hair follicle cells, bone marrow cells, and the epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal tract (Wong, 2014).Such eventuality may predispose cancer patients to anemia. Diarrhea is also a common side effect associated with the use of cancer drugs. Its persistence may lead to renal insufficiency, body weakness, electrolyte imbalances, weight loss, and acute dehydration. Moreover, diarrhea interferes with adherence to treatment schedules of cancer patients, and this is likely to lead to poor quality of life in the long run (Abernethy et al., 2010).
Methods used to Lessen Physical and Psychological Effects of Cancer
Some cancer treatment methods can have damaging physical and psychological effects to cancer patients. For instance, patients may experience fears, worries, anger, sadness, and other forms of psychological stress hence the need for mitigation mechanisms (Wong, 2014; Hayat, 2011). To address psychological problems, counseling of patients can provide them with information on how to live a positive life. This is done by giving patients information on how to communicate pain and medical needs (Syrjala et al., 2014). Counseling can also be extended to family members of cancer patients to provide them with knowledge and skills of living with a cancer patient. Such information would help family members deal with the fear of losing a loved, as well as empower them to sufficiently deal with the care needs of their sick relatives (Wong, 2014; Syrjala et al., 2014).
Drugs can also be to lessen the pain for patients with chronic conditions. The use of methadone has been recommended as one of the avenues that physicians prescribe for relieving side effects of cancer. Methadone has certain characteristics that make it helpful in the managing acute cancer pain. For instance, research has indicated that the drug is effective in relieving of neuropathic pain (Paice & Ferrell, 2011).
Physical exercises can be an effective tool for managing psychological and physical effects of cancer. A number of researchers have found that patients who engage exercises during cancer treatment are more likely to experience lower fatigue and depression. Similar studies indicated that patients who performed exercises during treatment reported a decrease in pain after the end of the treatment (Syrjala et al., 2014).
References
Abernethy, A. P., Wheeler, J. L., & Zafar, S. Y. (2010). Management of gastrointestinal symptoms in advanced cancer patients: the rapid learning cancer clinic model. Current Opinion in Supportive and Palliative Care, 4(1), 36-45. doi:10.1097/spc.0b013e32833575fd
Giglio, P., & Gilbert, M. R. (2010). Neurologic Complications of Cancer and its Treatment. Current Oncology Reports, 12(1), 50-59. doi:10.1007/s11912-009-0071-x
Hayat, M. A. (2011). Methods of Cancer Diagnosis, Therapy, and Prognosis: Brain Cancer. Dordrecht: Springer.
Nazario, H. E., Lepe, R., & Trotter, J. F. (2011). Metastatic breast cancer presenting as acute liver failure. Gastroenterology & Hepatology , 7(1), 65-66.
Paice, J. A., & Ferrell, B. (2011). The management of cancer pain. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 61(3), 157-182. doi:10.3322/caac.20112
Siegel, R. L., Miller, K. D., & Jemal, A. (2016). Cancer statistics, 2016. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 66(1), 7-30. doi:10.3322/caac.21332
Syrjala, K. L., Jensen, M. P., Mendoza, M. E., Yi, J. C., Fisher, H. M., & Keefe, F. J. (2014). Psychological and Behavioral Approaches to Cancer Pain Management. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 32(16), 1703-1711. doi:10.1200/jco.2013.54.4825
Wong, H. M. (2014). Oral complications and management strategies for patients undergoing cancer therapy. The Scientific World Journal, 2014, 1-14. doi:10.1155/2014/58179.
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